Producing Robust Programs Defensive design considerations: -input sanitisation/validation -planning for contingencies -anticipating misuse -authentication.

• Robust For Men

. Software architecture refers to the high level structures of a, the discipline of creating such structures, and the documentation of these structures. These structures are needed to reason about the software system. Each structure comprises software elements, relations among them, and properties of both elements and relations. The architecture of a software system is a metaphor, analogous to the of a building.

Software architecture is about making fundamental structural choices which are costly to change once implemented. Software architecture choices include specific structural options from possibilities in the design of software. For example, the systems that controlled the launch vehicle had the requirement of being very fast and very reliable. Therefore, an appropriate language would need to be chosen. Additionally, to satisfy the need for reliability the choice could be made to have multiple redundant and independently produced copies of the program, and to run these copies on independent hardware while cross-checking results. Documenting software architecture facilitates communication between, captures early decisions about the high-level design, and allows reuse of design components between projects.: pp.29–35. Contents.

Scope Opinions vary as to the scope of software architectures:. Overall, macroscopic system structure; this refers to architecture as a higher level of a software system that consists of a collection of computational components together with connectors that describe the interaction between these components. The important stuff—whatever that is; this refers to the fact that software architects should concern themselves with those decisions that have high impact on the system and its stakeholders. That which is fundamental to understanding a system in its environment'. Things that people perceive as hard to change; since designing the architecture takes place at the beginning of a software system's lifecycle, the architect should focus on decisions that 'have to' be right the first time. Following this line of thought, architectural design issues may become non-architectural once their irreversibility can be overcome.

A set of architectural design decisions; software architecture should not be considered merely a set of models or structures, but should include the decisions that lead to these particular structures, and the rationale behind them. This insight has led to substantial research into software architecture. There is no sharp distinction between software architecture versus design and requirements engineering (see below). They are all part of a 'chain of intentionality' from high-level intentions to low-level details.

( p18) Characteristics Software architecture exhibits the following: Multitude of stakeholders: software systems have to cater to a variety of stakeholders such as business managers, owners, users and operators. These stakeholders all have their own concerns with respect to the system. Balancing these concerns and demonstrating how they are addressed is part of designing the system.: pp.29–31 This implies that architecture involves dealing with a broad variety of concerns and stakeholders, and has a multidisciplinary nature. Separation of concerns: the established way for architects to reduce complexity is to separate the concerns that drive the design. Architecture documentation shows that all stakeholder concerns are addressed by modeling and describing the architecture from separate points of view associated with the various stakeholder concerns. These separate descriptions are called architectural views (see for example the ). Quality-driven: classic approaches (e.g.

) were driven by required functionality and the flow of data through the system, but the current insight: pp.26–28 is that the architecture of a software system is more closely related to its such as, security, usability, and other such –. Stakeholder concerns often translate into on these quality attributes, which are variously called, extra-functional requirements, behavioral requirements, or quality attribute requirements.

Recurring styles: like building architecture, the software architecture discipline has developed standard ways to address recurring concerns. These 'standard ways' are called by various names at various levels of abstraction. Common terms for recurring solutions are architectural style,: pp.273–277 tactic,: pp.70–72 and.: pp.203–205 Conceptual integrity: a term introduced by Fred Brooks in to denote the idea that the architecture of a software system represents an overall vision of what it should do and how it should do it. This vision should be separated from its implementation. The architect assumes the role of 'keeper of the vision', making sure that additions to the system are in line with the architecture, hence preserving.: pp.41–50 Motivation Software architecture is an 'intellectually graspable' abstraction of a complex system.: pp.5–6 This abstraction provides a number of benefits:. It gives a basis for analysis of software systems' behavior before the system has been built. The ability to verify that a future software system fulfills its stakeholders' needs without actually having to build it represents substantial cost-saving and risk-mitigation.

A number of techniques have been developed to perform such analyses, such as. It provides a basis for re-use of elements and decisions.: p.35 A complete software architecture or parts of it, like individual architectural strategies and decisions, can be re-used across multiple systems whose stakeholders require similar quality attributes or functionality, saving design costs and mitigating the risk of design mistakes. It supports early design decisions that impact a system's development, deployment, and maintenance life.: p.31 Getting the early, high-impact decisions right is important to prevent schedule and.

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It facilitates communication with stakeholders, contributing to a system that better fulfills their needs.: p.29–31 Communicating about complex systems from the point of view of stakeholders helps them understand the consequences of their stated requirements and the design decisions based on them. Architecture gives the ability to communicate about design decisions before the system is implemented, when they are still relatively easy to adapt.

It helps in. Software architecture helps to reduce risks and chance of failure.

( p18). It enables.

Software architecture is a means to manage risk and costs in complex IT projects. History The comparison between software design and (civil) architecture was first drawn in the late 1960s, but the term software architecture became prevalent only in the beginning of the 1990s. The field of had encountered problems associated with complexity since its formation. Earlier problems of complexity were solved by developers by choosing the right, developing, and by applying the concept of. Although the term 'software architecture' is relatively new to the industry, the fundamental principles of the field have been applied sporadically by pioneers since the mid-1980s. Early attempts to capture and explain software architecture of a system were imprecise and disorganized, often characterized by a set of box-and-line. Software architecture as a concept has its origins in the research of in 1968 and in the early 1970s.

These scientists emphasized that the structure of a software system matters and getting the structure right is critical. During the 1990s there was a concerted effort to define and codify fundamental aspects of the discipline, with research work concentrating on architectural styles , and. Research institutions have played a prominent role in furthering software architecture as a discipline.

And David Garlan of wrote a book titled Software Architecture: Perspectives on an Emerging Discipline in 1996, which promoted software architecture concepts such as, connectors, and styles. The 's Institute for Software Research's efforts in software architecture research is directed primarily in architectural styles, architecture description languages, and dynamic architectures.2000, Recommended Practice for Architecture Description of Software-Intensive Systems, was the first formal standard in the area of software architecture. It was adopted in 2007 by ISO as. In November 2011, IEEE 1471–2000 was superseded by, Systems and software engineering — Architecture description (jointly published by IEEE and ISO). While in, software architecture was about the architecture of 'software-intensive systems', defined as 'any system where software contributes essential influences to the design, construction, deployment, and evolution of the system as a whole', the 2011 edition goes a step further by including the and definitions of a system, which embrace not only hardware and software, but also 'humans, processes, procedures, facilities, materials and naturally occurring entities'.

This reflects the relationship between software architecture, and. Architecture activities There are many activities that a software architect performs. A software architect typically works with project managers, discusses with stakeholders, designs a software architecture, evaluates a design, communicates with designers and stakeholders, documents the architectural design and more. There are four core activities in software architecture design. These core architecture activities are performed iteratively and at different stages of the initial software development life-cycle, as well as over the evolution of a system. Architectural Analysis is the process of understanding the environment in which a proposed system or systems will operate and determining the requirements for the system.

Software architecture descriptions are commonly organized into, which are analogous to the different types of made in building. Each view addresses a set of system concerns, following the conventions of its viewpoint, where a viewpoint is a specification that describes the notations, modeling and analysis techniques to use in a view that express the architecture in question from the perspective of a given set of stakeholders and their concerns.

The viewpoint specifies not only the concerns framed (i.e., to be addressed) but the presentation, model kinds used, conventions used and any consistency (correspondence) rules to keep a view consistent with other views. Architecture frameworks. Main article: An is a general, reusable solution to a commonly occurring problem in software architecture within a given context.

Architectural patterns are often documented as software. Following traditional building architecture, a 'software architectural style' is a specific method of construction, characterized by the features that make it notable'. 'An architectural style defines: a family of systems in terms of a pattern of structural organization; a vocabulary of components and connectors, with constraints on how they can be combined.' 'Architectural styles are reusable 'packages' of design decisions and constraints that are applied to an architecture to induce chosen desirable qualities.' There are many recognized architectural patterns and styles, among them:. (2-tier, exhibit this style). (or ).

(or ). (P2P). (REST). Some treat architectural patterns and architectural styles as the same, some treat styles as specializations of patterns. What they have in common is both patterns and styles are idioms for architects to use, they 'provide a common language' or 'vocabulary' with which to describe classes of systems. Software architecture and agile development. Main article: There are also concerns that software architecture leads to too much, especially among proponents of.

A number of methods have been developed to balance the trade-offs of up-front design and agility, including the agile method which mandates a 'Foundations' phase during which 'just enough' architectural foundations are laid. Devoted a special issue to the interaction between agility and architecture.

Software architecture erosion Software architecture erosion (or 'decay') refers to the gap observed between the planned and actual architecture of a software system as realized in its implementation. Software architecture erosion occurs when implementation decisions either do not fully achieve the architecture-as-planned or otherwise violate constraints or principles of that architecture. The gap between planned and actual architectures is sometimes understood in terms of the notion of. As an example, consider a strictly system, where each layer can only use services provided by the layer immediately below it. Any source code component that does not observe this constraint represents an architecture violation. If not corrected, such violations can transform the architecture into a monolithic block, with adverse effects on understandability, maintainability, and evolvability. Various approaches have been proposed to address erosion.

'These approaches, which include tools, techniques and processes, are primarily classified into three generic categories that attempt to minimise, prevent and repair architecture erosion. Within these broad categories, each approach is further broken down reflecting the high-level strategies adopted to tackle erosion.

These are: process-oriented architecture conformance, architecture evolution management, architecture design enforcement, architecture to implementation linkage, self-adaptation and architecture restoration techniques consisting of recovery, discovery and reconciliation.' There are two major techniques to detect architectural violations: reflexion models and domain-specific languages.

Reflexion model (RM) techniques compare a high-level model provided by the system's architects with the source code implementation. There are also with focus on specifying and checking architectural constraints. Software architecture recovery. Main article: Architecture is but not all design is architectural.

In practice, the architect is the one who draws the line between software architecture (architectural design) and detailed design (non-architectural design). There are no rules or guidelines that fit all cases, although there have been attempts to formalize the distinction. According to the Intension/Locality Hypothesis, the distinction between architectural and detailed design is defined by the Locality Criterion, according to which a statement about software design is non-local (architectural) if and only if a program that satisfies it can be expanded into a program that does not. For example, the style is architectural (strategic) because a program that is built on this principle can be expanded into a program that is not client–server—for example, by adding nodes. Requirements Engineering. Main article: and software architecture can be seen as complementary approaches: while software architecture targets the ' or the 'how', requirements engineering addresses the ' or the 'what'. Requirements engineering entails the, and of.

Both requirements engineering and software architecture revolve around concerns, needs and wishes. There is considerable overlap between requirements engineering and software architecture, as evidenced for example by a study into five industrial software architecture methods that concludes that 'the inputs (goals, constrains, etc.) are usually ill-defined, and only get discovered or better understood as the architecture starts to emerge' and that while 'most architectural concerns are expressed as requirements on the system, they can also include mandated design decisions'. In short, the choice of required behavior given a particular problem impacts the architecture of the solution that addresses that problem, while at the same time the architectural design may impact the problem and introduce new requirements. Approaches such as the Twin Peaks model aim to exploit the relation between requirements and architecture.

Other types of 'architecture'. Main articles:, and Computer architecture targets the internal structure of a computer system, in terms of collaborating hardware components such as the – or processor – the and the. Systems architecture The term has originally been applied to the architecture of that consists of both hardware and. The main concern addressed by the systems architecture is then the integration of software and hardware in a complete, correctly working device.

In another common – much broader – meaning, the term applies to the architecture of any complex system which may be of technical, or social nature. Enterprise architecture The goal of is to 'translate business vision and strategy into effective enterprise'. Enterprise architecture, such as and the, usually distinguish between different enterprise architecture layers. Although terminology differs from framework to framework, many include at least a distinction between a layer, an (or ) layer, and a layer.

Enterprise architecture addresses among others the alignment between these layers, usually in a top-down approach. See also.

References.

. Software architecture refers to the high level structures of a, the discipline of creating such structures, and the documentation of these structures. These structures are needed to reason about the software system.

Each structure comprises software elements, relations among them, and properties of both elements and relations. The architecture of a software system is a metaphor, analogous to the of a building. Software architecture is about making fundamental structural choices which are costly to change once implemented.

Software architecture choices include specific structural options from possibilities in the design of software. For example, the systems that controlled the launch vehicle had the requirement of being very fast and very reliable. Therefore, an appropriate language would need to be chosen. Additionally, to satisfy the need for reliability the choice could be made to have multiple redundant and independently produced copies of the program, and to run these copies on independent hardware while cross-checking results. Documenting software architecture facilitates communication between, captures early decisions about the high-level design, and allows reuse of design components between projects.: pp.29–35.

Contents. Scope Opinions vary as to the scope of software architectures:.

Overall, macroscopic system structure; this refers to architecture as a higher level of a software system that consists of a collection of computational components together with connectors that describe the interaction between these components. The important stuff—whatever that is; this refers to the fact that software architects should concern themselves with those decisions that have high impact on the system and its stakeholders. That which is fundamental to understanding a system in its environment'.

Things that people perceive as hard to change; since designing the architecture takes place at the beginning of a software system's lifecycle, the architect should focus on decisions that 'have to' be right the first time. Following this line of thought, architectural design issues may become non-architectural once their irreversibility can be overcome. A set of architectural design decisions; software architecture should not be considered merely a set of models or structures, but should include the decisions that lead to these particular structures, and the rationale behind them. This insight has led to substantial research into software architecture. There is no sharp distinction between software architecture versus design and requirements engineering (see below). They are all part of a 'chain of intentionality' from high-level intentions to low-level details.

( p18) Characteristics Software architecture exhibits the following: Multitude of stakeholders: software systems have to cater to a variety of stakeholders such as business managers, owners, users and operators. These stakeholders all have their own concerns with respect to the system. Balancing these concerns and demonstrating how they are addressed is part of designing the system.: pp.29–31 This implies that architecture involves dealing with a broad variety of concerns and stakeholders, and has a multidisciplinary nature. Separation of concerns: the established way for architects to reduce complexity is to separate the concerns that drive the design.

Robust For Men

Architecture documentation shows that all stakeholder concerns are addressed by modeling and describing the architecture from separate points of view associated with the various stakeholder concerns. These separate descriptions are called architectural views (see for example the ). Quality-driven: classic approaches (e.g. ) were driven by required functionality and the flow of data through the system, but the current insight: pp.26–28 is that the architecture of a software system is more closely related to its such as, security, usability, and other such –. Stakeholder concerns often translate into on these quality attributes, which are variously called, extra-functional requirements, behavioral requirements, or quality attribute requirements. Recurring styles: like building architecture, the software architecture discipline has developed standard ways to address recurring concerns.

These 'standard ways' are called by various names at various levels of abstraction. Common terms for recurring solutions are architectural style,: pp.273–277 tactic,: pp.70–72 and.: pp.203–205 Conceptual integrity: a term introduced by Fred Brooks in to denote the idea that the architecture of a software system represents an overall vision of what it should do and how it should do it. This vision should be separated from its implementation. The architect assumes the role of 'keeper of the vision', making sure that additions to the system are in line with the architecture, hence preserving.: pp.41–50 Motivation Software architecture is an 'intellectually graspable' abstraction of a complex system.: pp.5–6 This abstraction provides a number of benefits:. It gives a basis for analysis of software systems' behavior before the system has been built.

The ability to verify that a future software system fulfills its stakeholders' needs without actually having to build it represents substantial cost-saving and risk-mitigation. A number of techniques have been developed to perform such analyses, such as. It provides a basis for re-use of elements and decisions.: p.35 A complete software architecture or parts of it, like individual architectural strategies and decisions, can be re-used across multiple systems whose stakeholders require similar quality attributes or functionality, saving design costs and mitigating the risk of design mistakes. It supports early design decisions that impact a system's development, deployment, and maintenance life.: p.31 Getting the early, high-impact decisions right is important to prevent schedule and. It facilitates communication with stakeholders, contributing to a system that better fulfills their needs.: p.29–31 Communicating about complex systems from the point of view of stakeholders helps them understand the consequences of their stated requirements and the design decisions based on them. Architecture gives the ability to communicate about design decisions before the system is implemented, when they are still relatively easy to adapt.

It helps in. Software architecture helps to reduce risks and chance of failure.

( p18). It enables. Software architecture is a means to manage risk and costs in complex IT projects. History The comparison between software design and (civil) architecture was first drawn in the late 1960s, but the term software architecture became prevalent only in the beginning of the 1990s.

The field of had encountered problems associated with complexity since its formation. Earlier problems of complexity were solved by developers by choosing the right, developing, and by applying the concept of. Although the term 'software architecture' is relatively new to the industry, the fundamental principles of the field have been applied sporadically by pioneers since the mid-1980s.

Early attempts to capture and explain software architecture of a system were imprecise and disorganized, often characterized by a set of box-and-line. Software architecture as a concept has its origins in the research of in 1968 and in the early 1970s.

These scientists emphasized that the structure of a software system matters and getting the structure right is critical. During the 1990s there was a concerted effort to define and codify fundamental aspects of the discipline, with research work concentrating on architectural styles , and. Research institutions have played a prominent role in furthering software architecture as a discipline.

And David Garlan of wrote a book titled Software Architecture: Perspectives on an Emerging Discipline in 1996, which promoted software architecture concepts such as, connectors, and styles. The 's Institute for Software Research's efforts in software architecture research is directed primarily in architectural styles, architecture description languages, and dynamic architectures.2000, Recommended Practice for Architecture Description of Software-Intensive Systems, was the first formal standard in the area of software architecture. It was adopted in 2007 by ISO as. In November 2011, IEEE 1471–2000 was superseded by, Systems and software engineering — Architecture description (jointly published by IEEE and ISO). While in, software architecture was about the architecture of 'software-intensive systems', defined as 'any system where software contributes essential influences to the design, construction, deployment, and evolution of the system as a whole', the 2011 edition goes a step further by including the and definitions of a system, which embrace not only hardware and software, but also 'humans, processes, procedures, facilities, materials and naturally occurring entities'. This reflects the relationship between software architecture, and.

Architecture activities There are many activities that a software architect performs. A software architect typically works with project managers, discusses with stakeholders, designs a software architecture, evaluates a design, communicates with designers and stakeholders, documents the architectural design and more. There are four core activities in software architecture design. These core architecture activities are performed iteratively and at different stages of the initial software development life-cycle, as well as over the evolution of a system. Architectural Analysis is the process of understanding the environment in which a proposed system or systems will operate and determining the requirements for the system. Software architecture descriptions are commonly organized into, which are analogous to the different types of made in building.

Each view addresses a set of system concerns, following the conventions of its viewpoint, where a viewpoint is a specification that describes the notations, modeling and analysis techniques to use in a view that express the architecture in question from the perspective of a given set of stakeholders and their concerns. The viewpoint specifies not only the concerns framed (i.e., to be addressed) but the presentation, model kinds used, conventions used and any consistency (correspondence) rules to keep a view consistent with other views. Architecture frameworks. Main article: An is a general, reusable solution to a commonly occurring problem in software architecture within a given context.

Architectural patterns are often documented as software. Following traditional building architecture, a 'software architectural style' is a specific method of construction, characterized by the features that make it notable'. 'An architectural style defines: a family of systems in terms of a pattern of structural organization; a vocabulary of components and connectors, with constraints on how they can be combined.'

'Architectural styles are reusable 'packages' of design decisions and constraints that are applied to an architecture to induce chosen desirable qualities.' There are many recognized architectural patterns and styles, among them:. (2-tier, exhibit this style). (or ). (or ).

(P2P). (REST). Some treat architectural patterns and architectural styles as the same, some treat styles as specializations of patterns. What they have in common is both patterns and styles are idioms for architects to use, they 'provide a common language' or 'vocabulary' with which to describe classes of systems. Software architecture and agile development.

Main article: There are also concerns that software architecture leads to too much, especially among proponents of. A number of methods have been developed to balance the trade-offs of up-front design and agility, including the agile method which mandates a 'Foundations' phase during which 'just enough' architectural foundations are laid. Devoted a special issue to the interaction between agility and architecture. Software architecture erosion Software architecture erosion (or 'decay') refers to the gap observed between the planned and actual architecture of a software system as realized in its implementation. Software architecture erosion occurs when implementation decisions either do not fully achieve the architecture-as-planned or otherwise violate constraints or principles of that architecture.

The gap between planned and actual architectures is sometimes understood in terms of the notion of. As an example, consider a strictly system, where each layer can only use services provided by the layer immediately below it. Any source code component that does not observe this constraint represents an architecture violation. If not corrected, such violations can transform the architecture into a monolithic block, with adverse effects on understandability, maintainability, and evolvability. Various approaches have been proposed to address erosion. 'These approaches, which include tools, techniques and processes, are primarily classified into three generic categories that attempt to minimise, prevent and repair architecture erosion.

Within these broad categories, each approach is further broken down reflecting the high-level strategies adopted to tackle erosion. These are: process-oriented architecture conformance, architecture evolution management, architecture design enforcement, architecture to implementation linkage, self-adaptation and architecture restoration techniques consisting of recovery, discovery and reconciliation.' There are two major techniques to detect architectural violations: reflexion models and domain-specific languages. Reflexion model (RM) techniques compare a high-level model provided by the system's architects with the source code implementation. There are also with focus on specifying and checking architectural constraints. Software architecture recovery.

Main article: Architecture is but not all design is architectural. In practice, the architect is the one who draws the line between software architecture (architectural design) and detailed design (non-architectural design). There are no rules or guidelines that fit all cases, although there have been attempts to formalize the distinction. According to the Intension/Locality Hypothesis, the distinction between architectural and detailed design is defined by the Locality Criterion, according to which a statement about software design is non-local (architectural) if and only if a program that satisfies it can be expanded into a program that does not.

For example, the style is architectural (strategic) because a program that is built on this principle can be expanded into a program that is not client–server—for example, by adding nodes. Requirements Engineering. Main article: and software architecture can be seen as complementary approaches: while software architecture targets the ' or the 'how', requirements engineering addresses the ' or the 'what'. Requirements engineering entails the, and of. Both requirements engineering and software architecture revolve around concerns, needs and wishes. There is considerable overlap between requirements engineering and software architecture, as evidenced for example by a study into five industrial software architecture methods that concludes that 'the inputs (goals, constrains, etc.) are usually ill-defined, and only get discovered or better understood as the architecture starts to emerge' and that while 'most architectural concerns are expressed as requirements on the system, they can also include mandated design decisions'.

In short, the choice of required behavior given a particular problem impacts the architecture of the solution that addresses that problem, while at the same time the architectural design may impact the problem and introduce new requirements. Approaches such as the Twin Peaks model aim to exploit the relation between requirements and architecture. Other types of 'architecture'. Main articles:, and Computer architecture targets the internal structure of a computer system, in terms of collaborating hardware components such as the – or processor – the and the.

Systems architecture The term has originally been applied to the architecture of that consists of both hardware and. The main concern addressed by the systems architecture is then the integration of software and hardware in a complete, correctly working device. In another common – much broader – meaning, the term applies to the architecture of any complex system which may be of technical, or social nature. Enterprise architecture The goal of is to 'translate business vision and strategy into effective enterprise'.

Enterprise architecture, such as and the, usually distinguish between different enterprise architecture layers. Although terminology differs from framework to framework, many include at least a distinction between a layer, an (or ) layer, and a layer. Enterprise architecture addresses among others the alignment between these layers, usually in a top-down approach. See also.

References.